The Vampire Diaries: Dark Reunion Chapter One

â€Å"Things can be just like they were before,† said Caroline warmly, reaching out to squeeze Bonnie's hand. But it wasn't true. Nothing could ever be the way it had been before Elena died. Nothing. And Bonnie had serious misgivings about this party Caroline was trying to set up. A vague nagging in the pit of her stomach told her that for some reason it was a very, very bad idea. â€Å"Meredith's birthday is already over,† she pointed out. â€Å"It was last Saturday.† â€Å"But she didn't have a party, not a real party like this one. We've got all night; my parents won't be back until Sunday morning. Come on, Bonnie-just think how surprised she'll be.† Oh, she'll be surprised, all right, thought Bonnie. So surprised she just might kill me afterward. â€Å"Look, Caroline, the reason Meredith didn't have a big party is that she still doesn't feel much like celebrating. It seems-disrespectful, somehow-â€Å" â€Å"But that's wrong. Elena would want us to have a good time, you know she would. She loved parties. And she'd hate to see us sitting around and crying over her six months after she's gone.† Caroline leaned forward, her normally feline green eyes earnest and compelling. There was no artifice in them now, none of Caroline's usual nasty manipulation. Bonnie could tell she really meant it. â€Å"I want us to be friends again the way we used to be,† Caroline said. â€Å"We always used to celebrate our birthdays together, just the four of us, remember? And remember how the guys would always try to crash our parties? I wonder if they'll try this year.† Bonnie felt control of the situation slipping away from her. This is a bad idea, this is a very bad idea, she thought. But Caroline was going on, looking dreamy and almost romantic as she talked about the good old days. Bonnie didn't have the heart to tell her that the good old days were as dead as disco. â€Å"But there aren't even four of us anymore. Three doesn't make much of a party,† she protested feebly when she could get a word in. â€Å"I'm going to invite Sue Carson, too. Meredith gets along with her, doesn't she?† Bonnie had to admit Meredith did; everyone got along with Sue. But even so, Caroline had to understand that things couldn't be the way they had been before. You couldn't just substitute Sue Carson for Elena and say, There, everything is fixed now. But how do I explain that to Caroline? Bonnie thought. Suddenly she knew. â€Å"Let's invite Vickie Bennett,† she said. Caroline stared. â€Å"Vickie Bennett? You must be joking. Invite that bizarre little drip who undressed in front of half the school? After everything that happened?† Caroline stared. â€Å"Vickie Bennett? You must be joking. Invite that bizarre little drip who undressed in front of half the school? After everything that happened?† For a moment Caroline looked helplessly frustrated. Bonnie thrust her chin out, put her hands on her hips, and waited. Finally Caroline sighed. â€Å"All right; you win. I'll invite her. But you have to take care of getting Meredith to my house Saturday night. And Bonnie-make sure she doesn't have any idea what's going on. I really want this to be a surprise.† â€Å"Oh, it will be,† Bonnie said grimly. She was unprepared for the sudden light in Caroline's face or the impulsive warmth of Caroline's hug. â€Å"I'm so glad you're seeing things my way,† Caroline said. â€Å"And it'll be so good for us all to be together again.† She doesn't understand a thing, Bonnie realized, dazed, as Caroline walked off. What do I have to do to explain to her? Sock her? And then: Oh, God, now I have to tell Meredith. But by the end of the day she decided that maybe Meredith didn't need to be told. Caroline wanted Meredith surprised; well, maybe Bonnie should deliver Meredith surprised. That way at least Meredith wouldn't have to worry about it beforehand. Yes, Bonnie concluded, it was probably kindest to not tell Meredith anything. And who knows, she wrote in her journal Friday night. Maybe I'm being too hard on Caroline. Maybe she's really sorry about all the things she did to us, like trying to humiliate Elena in front of the whole town and trying to get Stefan put away for murder. Maybe Caroline's matured since then and learned to think about somebody besides herself. Maybe we'll actually have a good time at her party. And maybe aliens will kidnap me before tomorrow afternoon, she thought as she closed the diary. She could only hope. The diary was an inexpensive drugstore blank book, with a pattern of tiny flowers on the cover. She'd only started keeping it since Elena had died, but she'd already become slightly addicted to it. It was the one place she could say anything she wanted without people looking shocked and saying, â€Å"Bonnie McCullough!† or â€Å"Oh, Bonnie.† She was still thinking about Elena as she turned off the light and crawled under the covers. She was sitting on lush, manicured grass that spread as far as she could see in all directions. The sky was a flawless blue, the air was warm and scented. Birds were singing. â€Å"I'm so glad you could come,† Elena said. â€Å"Oh-yes,† said Bonnie. â€Å"Well, naturally, so am I. Of course.† She looked around again, then hastily back at Elena. â€Å"More tea?† There was a teacup in Bonnie's hand, thin and fragile as eggshell. â€Å"Oh-sure. Thanks.† Elena was wearing an eighteenth-century dress of gauzy white muslin, which clung to her, showing how slender she was. She poured the tea precisely, without spilling a drop. â€Å"Would you like a mouse?† â€Å"A what?† â€Å"I said, would you like a sandwich with your tea?† â€Å"Oh. A sandwich. Yeah. Great.† It was thinly sliced cucumber with mayonnaise on a dainty square of white bread. Without the crust. The whole scene was as sparkly and beautiful as a picture by Seurat. Warm Springs, that's where we are. The old picnic place, Bonnie thought. But surely we've got more important things to discuss than tea. â€Å"Who does your hair these days?† she asked. Elena never had been able to do it herself. â€Å"Do you like it?† Elena put a hand up to the silky, pale gold mass piled at the back of her neck. â€Å"It's perfect,† said Bonnie, sounding for all the world like her mother at a Daughters of the American Revolution dinner party. â€Å"Well, hair is important, you know,† Elena said. Her eyes glowed a deeper blue than the sky, lapis lazuli blue. Bonnie touched her own springy red curls self-consciously. â€Å"Of course, blood is important too,† Elena said. â€Å"Blood? Oh-yes, of course,† said Bonnie, flustered. She had no idea what Elena was talking about, and she felt as if she were walking on a tightrope over alligators. â€Å"Yes, blood's important, all right,† she agreed weakly. â€Å"Another sandwich?† â€Å"Thanks.† It was cheese and tomato. Elena selected one for herself and bit into it delicately. Bonnie watched her, feeling uneasiness grow by the minute inside her, and then- And then she saw the mud oozing out of the edges of the sandwich. â€Å"What-what's that?† Terror made her voice shrill. For the first time, the dream seemed like a dream, and she found that she couldn't move, could only gasp and stare. A thick glob of the brown stuff fell off Elena's sandwich onto the checkered tablecloth. It was mud, all right. â€Å"Elena†¦ Elena, what-â€Å" The air was no longer warm and scented; it was hot and sickly sweet with the odor of rotting garbage. There were black pits in the green grass, which wasn't manicured after all but wild and overgrown. This wasn't Warm Springs. She was in the old graveyard; how could she not have realized that? Only these graves were fresh. â€Å"Another mouse?† Elena said, and giggled obscenely. Bonnie looked down at the half-eaten sandwich she was holding and screamed. Dangling from one end was a ropy brown tail. She threw it as hard as she could against a headstone, where it hit with a wet slap. Then she stood, stomach heaving, scrubbing her fingers frantically against her jeans. â€Å"You can't leave yet. The company is just arriving.† Elena's face was changing; she had already lost her hair, and her skin was turning gray and leathery. Things were moving in the plate of sandwiches and the freshly dug pits. Bonnie didn't want to see any of them; she thought she would go mad if she did. â€Å"You're not Elena!† she screamed, and ran. The wind blew her hair into her eyes and she couldn't see. Her pursuer was behind her; she could feel it right behind her. Get to the bridge, she thought, and then she ran into something. â€Å"I've been waiting for you,† said the thing in Elena's dress, the gray skeletal thing with long, twisted teeth. â€Å"Listen to me, Bonnie.† It held her with terrible strength. â€Å"You're not Elena! You're not Elena!† â€Å"Listen to me, Bonnie!† It was Elena's voice, Elena's real voice, not obscenely amused nor thick and ugly, but urgent. It came from somewhere behind Bonnie and it swept through the dream like a fresh, cold wind. â€Å"Bonnie, listen quickly-â€Å" Things were melting. The bony hands on Bonnie's arms, the crawling graveyard, the rancid hot air. For a moment Elena's voice was clear, but it was broken up like a bad long-dis-tance connection. â€Å"†¦ He's twisting things, changing them. I'm not as strong as he is†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Bonnie missed some words. â€Å"†¦ but this is important. You have to find†¦ right now.† Her voice was fading. â€Å"Elena, I can't hear you! Elena!† â€Å"†¦ an easy spell, only two ingredients, the ones I told you already†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Elena!† Bonnie was still shouting as she sat bolt upright in bed.

Faminism in Anna Karenina

In the closing chapters of Leo Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina (Penguin Books, 2003), Dolly, Anna’s sister-in-law, reveals that â€Å"Whatever way one lives, there’s a penalty. † This is the central message in Tolstoy’s work, a tragedy whose themes include aristocracy, faith, hypocrisy, love, marriage, family, infidelity, greed, and every other issue prevalent among human beings. Anna Karenina is a tragic figure, but she can also be considered a feminist one. Her experiences resonate with female readers because she does the unexpected: she moves against the grain.And with any woman—at least in literature—who accomplishes the unexpected, the inappropriate, she pays the price for it. A Princess, an aristocrat married to Count Alexei Karenin, an important man twenty years her senior, Anna Karenina is a socialite, a respected woman, a wife, and a mother. It seems as if she has it all, until she meets the handsome and charming young Count Alexei Vr onsky. He stirs things in her—physical and emotional—that she has never experienced. This lack of experience in the spaces of love and desire is common—historically—for women.They married who they were told to marry—for money, for titles, and for security. Not for love. Anna Karenina is not in love with her husband. She tolerates him, but secretly she feels repulsed by this rigid, domineering, and paternal man twice her age. Vronsky’s wooing of her endanger s her place in society, her marriage, and even her role as mother. When she succumbs to an affair with him, she does so with open eyes, aware of all that she is sacrificing for the sake of love.And this isn’t the tragedy of the novel, of the situation. The tragedy is that she is a woman in a man’s world: â€Å"It was fate; she was doomed† from the start. And she was doomed because she was a woman acting out on her desires. Paralleled to her brother, Stiva, and his ins uppressible and known womanizing, the novel demonstrates the evident attitudes society had at this time toward men and women acting in similar fashion. Men, the public faces of society, had the power, the voice, and the volition to act in any way they wished.Stiva’s womanizing is something his wife, Dolly, has to suffer silently. She has no power to stop it. She is merely the wife. She goes about her business taking care of the home and her children, knowing that gossip and shame shadow her footsteps. Although infidelity is looked upon as an act of dishonor, society looks the other way when men succumb to its powers. Men continue to keep their marriages, the power in the home—over their wives and children, their jobs, and their place in society goes unvarnished.Even Vronsky, who openly seeks the affections of Anna, a married woman, a mother, and has an affair with her, has eyes rolled at him, but his career is never placed in danger. He does not lose his place in socie ty, his options, his money, or his power. He loves, he takes what he wants, and then when he is done—when Anna becomes too obsessive, too cumbersome an affair—he simply walks away. In the end, he’s lost nothing. He gave up nothing. With women, following their hearts is not so acceptable. It’s a tragedy, as we come to see with Anna.In following her heart, her passions, Anna loses her marriage, which is controlled by Karenin, who kicks her out of their home, but refuses to give her a divorce. In this way, she cannot marry Vronsky. She is forced to become his mistress and live with him in disgrace. When she takes her love out into the public, she is shunned by the same people who once loved her, while everyone shakes Vronsky’s hands. And the most valuable asset that she loses is access to her son, who is told that she is dead. Having lost everything and everyone, the only thing that remains is Vronsky.And she grabs on to him with great force, with des peration, pushing him farther and farther away from her with every aching need she can muster. But he grows tired of her love and confesses to her that â€Å"A man needs his career,† for he still has that fall back on. She has nothing. In losing him, she loses everything, and it is no wonder that she commits suicide. A woman in her day, having lost her place in society, her role as mother and wife, she cannot sustain herself. She gave everything up for love, for passion, for herself, to feed her own desires, but no one gave anything up for her.She dies tragically, while everyone around her continues to move on without her. Today, we can look at a character like Anna Karenina and come face-to-face with a feminist: she is strong, determined, bold, and she fights the patriarchal powers that tell her she cannot have what men are allowed, no matter their place in society. And even though her attempts come crashing around her in the end, resulting in her violent suicide, she had th e courage to act against the norm. This is empowerment. This is a feminist.

Electricity Demand and Supply Pakistan Essay

Electricity load-shedding in Pakistan is one of the biggest domestic problems faced by the country. Along with the problems that the power shortage brings for the society as a whole and for the inhabitants of the society the power failures seriously curbs the economic potential of the economy. Considering most of the medium and large scale industries of Pakistan depend on machinery that is run by electricity they are heavily dependent on the electricity supply, with the electricity supply cut their production capacity decreases dramatically as well. Since most of Pakistani manufacturing industries lack the self generation ability hence this power outage is even more harmful to their business. So eventually what ends up happening is that along with creating general distress among the public this power shortage reduces the production capacity of the firms and hence reduces the aggregate supply. Aggregate supply can be defined as the total supply of goods and services that firms in a national economy plan on selling during a specific time period. It is the total amount of goods and services that firms are willing to sell at a given price level in an economy. It is the total amount of goods and services that firms are willing to sell at a given price level in an economy. In the long run, the aggregate-supply curve is assumed to be vertical In the short run, the aggregate-supply curve is assumed to be upward sloping SRAS (Short run aggregate demand) shows total planned output when prices in the economy can change but the prices and productivity of all factor inputs e.g. wage rates and the state of technology are assumed to be held constant. LRAS (Long run aggregate supply) shows total planned output when both prices and average wage rates can change – it is a measure of a country’s potential output and the concept is linked strongly to that of the production poss ibility frontier The SRAS and LRAS can be graphically represented as follows: SRAS LRAS Now what happens is that firms will have to cut down their production process in order to effectively meet the costs incurred or it will come to a position of losses. The cutting down of the production process means  decreasing the supply of the firm. As a firm produces lesser than it did before, fewer workers will be needed because the excess labor has been made redundant since fewer employees are now needed to produce lesser output. Moreover, the firm can no longer afford to employ as many workers as it did before. Hence this will eventually give rise to over the course of time as many workers have will have to be laid off in industries due to low activity. This will invariably decrease the total consumption of the population because as the unemployment increases the purchasing power of the people also falls. They are now earning fewer wages and the income effect will lead to a drastic decrease in the consumption. Consumption is one of the major contributors in the aggregate demand function. We define aggregate demand as the total demand for all goods and services produced in the economy at a given time and price level. It is the amount of goods and services in the economy that will be produced at all possible price levels. The aggregate demand is usually described as a linear sum of four separable demand sources.[3] Where: C = Consumption I = Investment G = Government Spending (X-M) = Net Exports – Net Imports The graph for AD is as follows: It is often cited that the aggregate demand curve is downward sloping because at lower price levels a greater quantity is demanded. While this is correct at the microeconomic, single good level, at the aggregate level this is incorrect. The aggregate demand curve is in fact downward sloping as a result of the Pigou’s wealth effect. Pigou effect is an economics term that refers to the stimulation of output and employment caused by increasing consumption due to a rise in real balances of wealth, particularly during deflation. Keynes said that a drop in aggregate demand could lower employment and the price level (deflationary depression). Hence it can be  said that any decrease in the consumption would bring about a fall in the aggregate demand. Consumer demand or consumption, that is also known as personal consumption expenditure, is the largest part of aggregate demand or effective demand at the macroeconomic level. The interaction of the aggregate demand and aggregate supply gives us the market equilibrium. Now as has been previously pointed out, frequent power cuts will mean a cutting down of the production process which invariably brings about a decrease in the aggregate supply. What happens is that as aggregate supply decreases with the aggregate demand being constant (as obviously people would still be demanding the same quantity of products) inflation will increase as shown below: Now here we can see with AS moving to a new point as it decreases it is actually increasing the price level which results in inflation and as a result unemployment increases as well, because when there is inflation in the economy there is a rise in prices hence there is a fall in the demand of goods and services and the producers reduce their production level and as a result they end up decreasing the number of workers which means unemployment increases. Unemployment on the macroeconomic level is a sign that the economy is operating below its full production capacity, this is a sign of inefficiency. Here we can see that inflation is playing a key role in determining the employment level. Hence we’ll have a look at how load shedding gives rise to inflation. Inflation is conventionally defined as a general increase in the level of prices in goods and services. One of the effects of inflation is a decrease in the value of money. During the course of inflation income and prices do not increase at the same rate; the purchasing power of the nation as a whole drops. One of the reasons of inflation is surplus amount of money which causes the prices to rise at an extremely high rate. Other than that, another reason for inflation is the rise in the costs of production which in turn increases the prices of the products. Moreover inflation occurs when aggregate supply exceeds aggregate demand hence increasing the price level. In the context of load shedding though, we see that it has been a triggering stimulus for initiating inflation. The CPI inflation averaged 23.5 percent in July-February 2008-09 in Pakistan as against 8.9 percent in the comparable period of last year. The deficiency of energy sources is causing stir on the demand side of the economic picture causing an increase in the demand for energy sources as it has a huge effect on all spheres of economy of a nation having a primary influence on industry level. The insufficiency of the available energy sources is causing the people to demand more electricity to meet their needs on the individual as well as industry level which in turn when observed in the context of graphical representation shows a shift of the demand curve to the right causing a shift of the equilibrium position increasing the price level. (Demand-Pull Inflation) The increase in level of inflation has also been caused due to an increase in the cost of energy sources. The scarcity of the energy resources available to the industries is making them shift to other sources for the purpose of energy generation which in turn has caused their costs to sky rocket. Now, due to the heavy burden that everyone has to face in this state of affairs is causing a shift of the AS curve in terms of graphical representation of the scenario. The increase in the costs of production for the industries in turn affects the aggregate supply causing it to decline. This shift of the AS curve to the left also then causes the equilibrium price level to rise, in turn stirring up inflation in the society (Cost- Push Inflation). The power tariffs imposed would further increase the industrial input cost which is already very high making the products more expensive in the domestic as well as the international market. As far as the international market is concerned, the competitive edge of a country would be lost as their goods are more expensive in comparison to the other countries.

Grounds For Appeal On The Administrative Law Essay

Grounds For Appeal On The Administrative Law - Essay Example In Estate of Bravada case, a testator executed a will on a piece of notepaper1. Though, there had been two independent witnesses as required under section 9 of the Wills Act, 1837, the testator’s two daughters were also signed as witnesses. However, this is contrary to the section 15 of the Wills Act, 1837. In the above case, the gift was confronted on the footing that under s.15 of the Wills Act 1837, a beneficiary who stood as a witness to a will could not take a gift under that will. In this case, all the three judges declined to fine tune with the customary interpretation of s.15. Salmon LJ viewed that the wording of s.15 of the Wills Act 1837 is too simple, and the section makes it obvious that if any individual signs as a witness to any gift, then such gift shall be declared as null and void2. It is submitted that in Miller case, Jekyll MR had held that a supposed donation of a coach and horses to the donor’s wife failed as there had been no evidence of delivery. The same rationale will be applicable in Bogusz case also as there is no evidence for handing over of the title deeds of the home and the relevant keys to Ms. Cheryle Valley3. The so-called gift by Bogusz to Ms. Cheryle Vallee has established a mere expectation on the part of the donee namely Ms. Cheryle Vallee. However, it is to be noted that proprietary estoppel of 1975 Act will not come to help in Ms. Cheryle Vallee case. Under English law, there will be the transfer of rights under proprietary estoppel if somebody has given a concise promise that they will inherit or acquire a privilege over a property provided if they reasonably bank upon such a promise and if they act in a major way not to their disadvantage on the footing on that promise. If the above-stated ingredients of promises, disadvantage and dependence are present, the usual relief will be that the property will be vested with the claimant, if the court is of  the view that there is a need to permit a claim in the said scenarios.

Development of Herbs and ayurveda Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Development of Herbs and ayurveda - Case Study Example associate their lifestyle with fashion in health. The choice of Himalaya nourishing cream compliments the craze for fashion in India.Amongst the 720 crore market for the Indian fairness cream Himalayahealthcare wishes to acquire 2 percent market share (www.himalayahealthcare.com /search). MISSION (www.himalayahealthcare.com /mission) To establish Himalaya as a science based problem solving,head to heal brand harnessed from nature's wealth and characterised by trust and healthy lives. To develop worldwide markets and have an in-depth long-term approach maintaining highest ethical standards . To co-operate and take into consideration the talents of each member of the Himalaya family and the nearby communities in the local region where Himalayaproducts are consumed. To support the eco-friendly environment. mf.. Mohan 3 To ensure that each employee strongly reciprocates...Women besides fashion also want health and this nourishing cream fulfils their need and want because it is a gentle blend of herbal extracts that create vitality and youth for the skin. Himalaya herbal nourishing cream is light and non-greasy and provides nourishment, all day long. It protects the skin from pollution and dry weather.

Employment law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Employment law - Essay Example The employee breached the covenant and worked with one of the competitors in the course of the 3 years, hence forcing the plaintiff to seek court injunction restraining him from continuing with the competitor’s business (Lewis and Sargeant, 2004). The injunction was granted by the court on the grounds that it was reasonable to both parties. Therefore, the reasonableness of the terms of the covenant is the important factor a court considers when making a ruling. In our study case, the two clauses are reasonable, for instance, because 12 months is not a very long time and 20 miles radius is a fair distance. However, possible breach must be directly related to these terms. Clause 13 (a) intends to restraint Ian from working as a Director for any UK-based Film Corporation, which means that this cannot be enforceable because Ian left to become a Senior lecturer rather than a Director. However, Clause 13 (b) will be enforceable because the defendant is leaving to work for a firm, wh ich is connected with film industry located within the 12 restricted miles. Advise Julia of any rights that she may have under the Equality Act 2010 in the way that she has been treated. Equality Act 2010 protects Julia from discrimination based on her gender. Her employer owes her a right to establish policies, which should protect her from being discriminated by the male colleagues. Under sex discrimination, the Act protects her from being treated less favorably by her colleagues merely because she is a female and has been promoted. Julia’s colleagues have created an unfair, hostile, intimidating, humiliating, degrading and offensive environment for her considering the actions they have unleashed on her. All these acts have been spelt out clearly under this Act and she can successfully file a suit against her perpetrators. Altogether, the Equity Act 2010 protects Julia from demotion from her status on discrimination grounds, her employer does not have a right to demote her unless there is some legitimate reason such as poor performance or incapacitation (Wadham et al., 2012). Advise Kai on whether she can be classed as an employee for purposes of claiming benefits. Under the UK employment law, Kai could be eligible for payment of benefits after employment if she was contributing to a pension scheme while in job. There are a variety of social security schemes, some of which are compulsory and must be implemented by the employers. An example of such compulsory schemes is the state social scheme, which entitles the employer to share the monthly payments with the employees. Nonetheless, only those employees who are employed full-time takes part in the compulsory and the state pension scheme contribution. Although Kai has worked for English Hearts Film Corporation for eight years now, the employment contract still recognizes her as a casual employee and hence not eligible for the compulsory social scheme contribution (Lewis and Sargeant, 2004). Notably, ho wever, Kai could be eligible to receive the benefits even without having contributed if his job is terminated unfairly. From the terms of his job, it seems he has worked for the University for the past eight years with 12 months full payment every year plus other benefits. This means that his job cannot be terminated by of lack of enrollment without being unfair to him. The

Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 35

Marketing - Essay Example First, the strengths of the company must be identified. One of its strength is that it has been in the sausage business for 70 years. It is known for its company’s heritage and there is brand recognition already. Another strength of Saxonville is the nationwide distribution of its products, particularly its brats and breakfast sausage, through their national and regional brokers and their distributors. Aside from the company’s good reputation, the Vivio brand is considered to be of exceptional quality with great taste and texture. In terms of weakness, although Saxonville has nationwide distribution, it has very little distribution in stores in the Northeastern markets. Another drawback with the Vivio sausage is the customer’s perception that it may not be a good quality Italian sausage, since its manufacturer is of â€Å"German heritage†. It could be noted also that Saxonville does not spend much on advertising and market research which are very important for the success of a product. The packaging of the product needs a lot of improvement too. In terms of pricing, a weakness of the company is that management does not allow a decrease in Vivio’s price so it is unable to compete with other brands in terms of pricing. The Italian sausage market is a category which has shown an increasing growth rate. This is an opportunity for Saxonville to focus their efforts at further enhancing their Italian sausage line. An opportunity exists for Vivio because currently there is no national player for fresh Italian sausage. A major threat is that there are 29 local and regional brands of Italian sausage. Furthermore, some consumers prefer to purchase sausages which are â€Å"home-grown†, meaning produced in their own locality. The objective of Saxonville is to be able to launch a national Italian sausage brand which will help them achieve their profit objectives for the next fiscal year. The company wants that their Italian sausage be a

Getting to know Bigger Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Getting to know Bigger - Essay Example s vanishing on her darling, a Communist; he tries to gather a payment from her guardians; after the body is discovered he kills his Negro paramour to keep her from deceiving him to the police. The one day from now he is caught on the snow-secured top of a South Side dwelling, while a crowd wails in the road below. Bigger is a character made to show us the issue of racism that was then present in America. The situation of the racial groups, the condition they went through, and their feelings their tough situations have been shown through the character of Bigger Thomas. Bigger, he demonstrates, had been prepared from the earliest starting point to be a terrible resident. He had been taught American beliefs of life, in the schools, in the magazines, in the modest film houses, yet had been precluded any methods from claiming accomplishing them. All that he needed to have or do was held for the whites. "I simply cant get accustomed to it," he lets one know of his poolroom pals. "I vow to God I cant†¦ Every time I contemplate it I feel like some persons jabbing a super hot iron down my throat. His every day presence is smudged with apprehension of white individuals, dread of life itself, and disgrace at the way his family exists. In spite of the fact that we know hes picked up another employment, even the new occupation offers little trust for a superior life. His family will keep on lying in the same rodent plagued one-room condo and battle to put sustenance on the table, a reality that fills Bigger with a miserable feeling of his own weakness. The Daltons, the well off white family that utilizes him, recommend that Bigger has an open door to increase an instruction through night school while he lives and works for them. In spite of the fact that this is an open door that few blacks at the time are offered, the Daltons liberality is moderated – actually, demolished – by their racism. Bigger realizes that the well off white family possesses the condo in which

Capabilities and Resources of LinkedIn Case Study

Capabilities and Resources of LinkedIn - Case Study Example The company has grown tremendously. As at 2011 December, the revenues had reached $522, 189 with the number of employees also increasing to 2,116 employees. It has also been able to establish its headquarters in Mountain View, California, and 14 other regional offices. Â  The social media industry is ripe and there are many opportunities for LinkedIn. The Asian market remains not fully exploited. In addition, there are other social networking platforms that the company can use to expand its operations and hence profitability. The company should stick to its focus on professionals in order to occupy its market niche. Despite these, various issues that confront the company. Firstly, there is high competition; Facebook, Twitter, Google+, and Xing provide a big competition that has kept the stake of the company on medium in the social media industry. Secondly, the number of unique visitors is relatively low. Thirdly, the site has limited strategy of getting new subscribers; it usually occurs through referrals. Finally, the amount of time that is spent on the site is relatively lower. Â  LinkedIn is one of the major social networking sites in the world today. The site was started in December 2002. He was joined hands by his forms colleagues at PayPal, Stanford University, and Socialnet.com. The company has been growing since then courtesy of a number of facilitators such as technology, management, and the socio-economic environment. Reid Hoffman who is the president of the company founded the company; he was initially the chief executive officer (CEO) before the company hired its first CEO, Dan Nye in 2007. Nye resigned in December 2008 making Hoffman reassume the role of a CEO.

Interconnection of Parental Psychological Support, Self-Efficacy and Dissertation

Interconnection of Parental Psychological Support, Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning for Elementary School Students - Dissertation Example They are able to take decisions that would help them achieve the said goals and turn to adults when they need inputs. Children are not born with such internalized educational goals, and it is necessary to provide them with the appropriate environment that will help them to internalize the desire to succeed and the ability to set personal goals (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Such an environment may be provided by parents and the school, though parents play a more important role as compared to the teachers or the school (Soenens & Vansteenkiste, 2005). Children learn to respond to rules and targets set down by parents early in their lives. Parents are a primary source of information, discipline and appreciation for young children, and they quickly learn to internalize the goals and attitudes that gain them appreciation and affection form the parents. This makes it important that parents present the child with experiences that help to develop the qualities that they require in order to succeed. O ne such set of behaviors and attitudes have been discussed by the Self Determination Theory, a macro theory that attempts to explain human decisions, choices and behaviors in terms of the source of motivation. 2.1 Self Determination Theory The term self – determination was initially coined to describe political and philosophical perspectives on the nature of the State and it’s governance (Price, Wolensky, & Mulligan, 2002)and the attributes of the Person and was used to some extent in Psychology to describe the way humans viewed themselves (Wehmeyer, 1999). The Psychological perspective was developed through the late 20th century by Deci and Ryan (1985), who have defined Self Determination as â€Å"A quality of human functioning that involves the experience of choice, in other words, the experience of an internal perceived locus of causality; it is the capacity as well to choose and to have those choices, rather than reinforcement contingencies, drives, or any other f orces or pressures, be the determinants of one’s actions.†(p. 38). Self Determination Theory has been studied by a number of researchers, and has been developed as an explanation of human motivation, behavior and personality (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009; Ryan & Deci, 2000). It assumes that a human being is by nature active, curious, interested in events, self motivated and desirous of success since the experience of success is a satisfying and rewarding experience that reinforces itself (Deci & Ryan, 2008a). Initial work on Self Determination Theory started in the 1970’s and was refined by Deci and Ryan (1985; 2008b) in the 1980’s. The last few decades have seen tremendous work in Self Determination Theory, and various researchers have applied it’s principles to various areas of human functioning like health (Deci & Ryan, 2008b), parenting (Joussemet, et al., 2008), work (Frederic Guay, Senecal, Gauthier, & Fernet, 2003), sport (Standage, Duda, & Ntoumanis , 2005), education (Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan, 1991), psychotherapy (Ryan & Deci, 2008). Although Self determination is neither absolute control, nor to be confused with success (Wehmeyer, 1998); it does involve the person’s ability to make choices that is autonomous of the influence of others. It is important not to confuse self determination with either self sufficiency or self reliance as Self Determination

Sports Exercise Science Paper Essay Example for Free

Sports Exercise Science Paper Essay AussieFit offers two inexpensive membership options starting at basic Fit which is $4.95 a week. Includes Full-club access includes strength, cardio and free weights. Each is designed to fit your schedule and budget. BasicFit plus Includes all â€Å"BasicFit privileges† â€Å"PLUS Aussie-style world-class Group Fitness† including: BodyPump, Cycling, Zumba, and more! From $6.89 a week and for just $5 extra per week, you can add on your choice of the â€Å"Little Nippers Kids’ Club† or â€Å"Unlimited Touch less Tanning.† There are several weights that are available mostly all the basic equipment, the site does not reveal too much information regarding weights. There are also several programs like: â€Å"Zumba Fitness† a Latin-inspired dance-fitness that blends international music, created by Grammy Award-winning producers. â€Å"Body Attack† which is a sports inspired cardio workout that builds strength and stamina. Its a high-intensity program is designed to a wide range of fitness levels and ages. The possibility of using low-impact and low-intensity options throughout the class allows new participants to enjoy the class alongside very fit individual. Also â€Å"Body Combat† which is a unique, Martial Arts-based workout that’s designed for people looking to boost cardio fitness and benefit from total body conditioning. Primarily for fun, this workout is particularly for youthful, sociable individuals who are likely to attend classes with friends. â€Å"Body flow† a workout which combines Yoga, Tai Chi and Pilates and is designed for those looking to improve general fitness, relax and reduce stress, increase mental clearness and to get a sense of well-being. It requires low-level coordination and is particularly popular with the more mature market. There is also â€Å"Body Jam† which puts together the latest dance moves and the hottest new sounds and is designed for the young and young at heart it’s perfect for confident, social people who like to listen to the latest music and try out all the latest trends. Another one is â€Å"Body pump† which is the original barbell class that is for of all ages and fitness levels, and is perfect for anyone looking to get the best possible results in the shortest time. It is favored by those who are bored by an individual weights program and by group fitness people who recognize the need to add some weight training to their workout. Another one is â€Å"Body Step† an energizing step-based cardio workout that uses a height-adjustable step and simple movements on, over and around the step. Including cardio blocks that push fat burning into high gear followed by muscle-conditioning tracks that shape and tone the body, it’s perfect for anyone looking for a fun way to increase fitness. The Website however does not reveal the following; color schemes, music, atmosphere and uniforms. Also absent recreational leagues, clinics, types of sport instruction offered, due to the fact the gym does not have any gymnasiums. The number of employees capacity, number of administrators capacity, is also confidential information. In conclusion, I felt the gym website did a fairly below average job with their website. I felt the website was not well rounded and focused too much on one specific key area being their programs and did not cover all the areas equally. The club website also lacked a lot of information and was really too basic and general to the point of boredom, so I do not think I would attend AusssieFit due to the fact the website lacked creativity, in depth information and diversity with what they have to offer.

Attachment - Psychology Essay Example for Free

Attachment Psychology Essay Developmental Psychology Early Social Development: Attachment Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ An emotional bond between two people. It is a two-way  process that endures over time. It leads to certain  behaviours such as clinging and proximity-seeking and  serves the function of protecting the infant. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Primary attachment figure ï  ® The person who has formed the closest bond with a child,demonstrated by the intensity of the relationship. Usually  the biological mother, but other people can fulfil the role. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Learning theory ï  ® A group of explanations which explain behaviour in terms  of learning rather than any innate or higher order  tendencies. Mainly used by behaviourists who rather focus  their explanations purely on what behaviour they observe. Learning Theory ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) Unconditioned Stimulus (US) food ↓ Unconditioned Response (UR) pleasure ↓ Neutral Stimulus (NS) – the feeder ↓ Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – food from a feeder ↓ Conditioned Response (CR) – pleasure/attachment Learning Theory ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Operant Conditioning ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Reinforcement ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ When doing something results in a pleasant  consequence, the behaviour is more likely to be produced. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Punishment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ When doing something results in an unpleasant  consequence, the behaviour is unlikely to be produced. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Dollard and Miller (1950) explain attachment using operant conditioning: ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ When an infant is fed it reduces discomfort and increases pleasure, this serves as a reward and is the primary reinforcer. The person supplying the food is associated  with avoiding discomfort and is the source of reward which  becomes the secondary reinforcer. Attachment occurs  because the child seeks the person who supplies the  reward. Evaluating the Learning Theory ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Strengths It can provide adequate explanations of how attachments form. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Behaviourists argue that since we are made up of the same building blocks of stimulus/response environments experiments done on animals are safe to generalize to human behaviour. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Weakness ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ It may be attention and responsiveness from the caregiver that is the primary reinforcer, not food. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Learning theory is largely based on studies with non-human animals. Human behaviour may be similar in many ways but learning theory does not consider higher order thinking and emotions that can influence behaviour. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Harlow (1959) demonstrated that it is not food but the level of contact and comfort the infant receives that increases attachment levels. The use of young rhesus monkeys were used to demonstrate this. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ 60 babies were studied in Glasgow and found that attachment was higher to the person who was most responsive and who interacted with them more (Schaffer and Emerson,1964). ï  ® ï  ® Cant explain the importance of sensitivity in attachment. Bowlby’s Attachment Theory (1969) ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ ELEMENTS OF BOWLBY’S ATTACHMENT THEORY: ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Attachment is adaptive and innate ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Bowlby’s theory is an evolutionary theory because it sees attachment as a behaviour that adds to its survival and  ultimately its reproductive value. Having attachment  capabilities is an innate drive, similar to imprinting, that has long term benefits ensuring it stays close to its caregiver. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Background on the Theory of Evolution ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Adaptive behaviours are behaviours that increase the  likelihood of survival and reproduction. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Natural selection is the continuation of these adaptive traits within the animal to increase chances of survival. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Sexual selection is the ability to reproduce, not just survive. Adaptive genes that lead to possessing traits to assist in  reproduction increases sexual selection. Bowlby’s Attachment Theory ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Sensitive Period ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ A biologically determined period of time during the second quarter of the first year is the most crucial period in which attachments can be made. Once missed then it is more difficult for a child to make attachments and demonstrate social difficulties. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Caregiving is adaptive ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Not only attachment but also caregiving is adaptively innate. Social releasers from the infant give signals to the caregiver (smiling, crying, etc) to take care of it. Attachment is the innate system in babies and caregiving is the innate system in adults. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Secure base ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Having a secure attachment provides a child with a secure base in which to explore the world from. It fosters independence, not dependence. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Monotropy and hierarchy ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Infants form a number of different attachments but has one particular bias towards a very special one called the primary attachment, this is called monotropy. Even with secondary attachments, this hierarchy of attachments recognizes the importance of a primary attachment figure (PAF). The PAF is one that responds most sensitively to the childs social releasers. Secondary attachments are important, without them, children tend to lack social skills. Bowlby’s Attachment Theory ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Internal working model ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ A mental model of the world that enables individuals to predict and control their environment. The internal  working model based on attachment has several  consequences: ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ In the short-term it gives the child insight into the caregivers behaviour and enables the child to influence  the caregivers behaviour so that a true partnership can be formed. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ In the long-term it acts as a template for all future relationships because it generates expectations about  how people behave. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ The continuity hypothesis ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ The idea that emotionally secure infants go on to be  emotionally secure, trusting and socially confident adults. Evaluating Attachment Theory ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Strengths ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® Lorenz (1952) supports that imprinting is innate as the goslings imprinted on the first thing they saw moving, which was Lorenz. Research shows that once the sensitive period has passed and no attachments are formed, children display social difficulties with peers. If attachment and caregiving are an important biological function as Bowlby suggests then they would be found universally. Tronick et al (1992) studied an African tribe in Zaire and found despite tribal responsibility for raising kids a PAF is present. This is also evidence of monotropy. Schaffer and Emerson found that the more quickly a caregiver responded to a childs needs and the more interaction they had led to a stronger level of attachment. This interaction is important as it is not enough to have something to cuddle but to actually be cuddled back builds a stronger attachment. The Minnesota longitudinal study (2005) found that continuity between early attachment and later emotional/social behaviour. Infants classified as secure were later rated highest for social competence, less isolated, more empathetic and more popular. Evaluating Attachment Theory ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Weaknesses ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Multiple attachments, according to psychologists, are as equally important. There are no primary or secondary  attachments, all attachments are integrated into one single  working model. However, a review the research points to the  hierarchical model as being predominant (Prior and Glaser, ï  ® 2006). An alternative explanation to the continuity hypothesis exists, known as the temperament hypothesis. This is the belief that children form secure attachments simply because they have a more ‘easy’ temperament from birth, whereas more innately difficult children a more likely to form insecure attachments. The infants temperamental characteristics shapes a mothers level of responsiveness. Thomas and Chess (1977) identified infant personality types as easy, difficult and slow-to-warm-up. Belsky and Rovine (1987) found a link between physiological behaviours and later attachments types. The more calm and less anxious (aspects of temperament) an infant was the more likely they were to develop secure attachments. Types of Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ The Strange Situation (Ainsworth and Wittig, 1969) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU Aim: to see how infants behave under situations of stress  with the introduction of a stranger and the separation of  the parent. This tests stranger anxiety and separation  anxiety and also the infants willingness to explore with its secure base. Procedure: a 99 research room marked off into 16 squares  was used. The procedure consists of 8 episodes†¦ MEMORISE THEM!!! Data is collected by a group of observers that recorded  what the infant was doing every 15 seconds. Observer  noted the type of behaviour and level of intensity on a  scale of 1-7. Types of Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ The Strange Situation Findings: ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Ainsworth  combined data from several studies to  make 106 middle-class infants observed. Similarities and differences were found in the way  the infants behaved. In terms of similarities, it was  noted that episode 2 onwards exploratory  behaviour decreased while crying increased. Proximity-seeking and contact-maintaining  increased during separation and when stranger  appeared. Finally, contact-resisting and proximityavoiding behaviours rarely occurred towards the caregiver prior to separation. Types of Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ The Strange Situation Findings: ï  ® Ainsworth found differences in three main types of children. ï  ® ï  ® Insecure-avoidant: this is a style of attachment characterising those children that tend to avoid social interaction and intimacy with others. ï  ® ï  ® Secure attachment: this is a strong and contented attachment of an infant to his or her caregiver which develops as a result of sensitive responding by the caregiver to the infants needs. Insecure-resistant: this is a style of ambivalent attachment characterising  children who both seek and reject intimacy and social interaction. Main and Solomon (1986) re-analysed the strange situation video tapes and created a fourth attachment type: ï  ® Insecure-disorganised: these infants lack a coherent and consistent strategy for dealing with the stress of separation. Secure % of infants (Ainsworth, 1978) % of infants (Van Ijzendoorn et , 1999) Insecure avoidant Insecure resistant Insecure disorganised 66% 22% 12% XXX 62% 15% 9% 15% Evaluating Types of Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Strengths ï  ® Ainsworth’s Strange Situation technique has given psychologists a means to understand and study attachment which can lead to new future findings. ï  ® Intervention strategies have been developed to strengthen caregiving behaviour and attachments types. The Circle of Security Project (Cooper et al, 2005) which teaches caregivers to recognise signs of distress showed a decrease in disordered caregiving and an increase in secure attachment types. It has proven to be experimentally valid as its construct validity has been demonstrated by other studies supporting the four types of attachments and its predictive validity has been demonstrated in correlations between early attachment types and later behaviours. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Its findings are also consistent which makes them reliable. Using interobserver reliablity methods, Ainsworth found almost perfect agreement at . 94 between the raters (1.0 is perfect). ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Weakness ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Or does it lack validity, because it is intended to measure the attachment type of an infant, BUT does it really simply measure the quality of a particular relationship? Main and Weston (1981) claim it is measuring one relationship instead of something innate within an individual. ï  ® Evaluating Types of Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Effects of attachment types ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Bowlby’s continuity hypothesis would predict that a child’s behaviour later in life would be effected by specific attachment types they develop. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Prior and Glaser (2006) found that in later childhood, if as infants they developed a secure attachment type, they would  be less emotionally dependent and possess more  interpersonal harmony. Infants with the other three types  would be more aggressive, negative withdrawn in later  childhood. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ It would also effect you in your adult romantic lives as well. Hazen and Shaver (1987) conducted the ‘Love Quiz’ which  asked questions about early experiences and current love  experiences and found that there were characteristic  patterns of later romantic behaviour associated with each  early attachment type. Evaluating Types of Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Factors that influence attachment type ï  ® Sensitivity ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Ainsworth developed the Maternal Sensitivity Scale to rate mothers’ behaviour such as sensitivity and insensitivity to infants signals. The scale found: Securely  attached infant Observed  Mothers bx ï  ® ï  ® Insecurely attached infant Avoidant infant Resistant infant  more sensitive,  cooperating Unresponsive to  crying less  affectionate More rejecting and  less attention  giving Preoccupied with  routine activities when  holding infant Maternal reflective functioning ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Some studies have shown low correlations between measures of sensitivity and strength of attachment. Slade et al (2005) found the ability to understand what someone else is thinking or feeling may be more important. Temperament ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ May play a role as previous research indicates, but it is unclear. Cultural Variations in Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ KNOW the definitions of culture, cultural variations and the difference between individualistic and collectivistic cultures (pg.45) ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Cross-cultural Similarities ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Ainsworth’s Uganda study (1967) ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Tronick et al (1992) study on the African tribe in Zaire ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Fox (1977) infants in Isreali kibbutz raised by  nurses when tested in the Strange Situation  appeared equally attached to both caregivers,  except in the reunion behaviour where they  showed greater attachment to their mothers. Cultural Variations in Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Cross-cultural Differences ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants appear more insecurely attached rather than secure. This may be due to the different childrearing practices as German culture involves keeping some interpersonal distance from the parent and infant. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Takahashi (1990) used the Strange Situation on a group of 60 middle-class infants in Japan and found similar rates of secure attachment. However, the infants showed no evidence of insecure-avoidant and high rates of insecureresistance (32%). Different childrearing practices can explain the difference for in Japan the infants are rarely ever separated from their parents which is why they would be more distressed than their American counterparts. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Conclusions ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ These studies suggest that the strongest attachments are still formed with their mothers and that there are differences in attachment that can be related to differences in cultural attitudes. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Meta-analysis study by Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) examined over 2000 Strange Situation classification studies in 8 countries. They found the variation between countries and culture were small with secure attachment being the most common in all countries followed by insecure-avoidant except in Japan and Israel. Variations within cultures however were greater. In conclusion the findings appear to be similar to that found in the US and this supports the view that attachment is an innate and biological process. Also data collected on different subcultures should not be generalised to be representative of a particular culture. Criticisms of Research on Cultural Variations ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Culture bias ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® Rothbaum et al (2000) argued that attachment theory and  research is not relevant to other countries because it is rooted in American culture. For example, the sensitivity hypothesis reflects western ideas of autonomy whereas in Japan sensitivity is about promoting dependence. The continuity hypothesis states that  secure infant attachments create more competent adults, however, this ‘competence’ is defined in terms of individuation. The secure base hypothesis in the west explains secure attached infants as independent and confident exploring whereas in Japan they  promote dependence and the concept of amae and so this can  explain why insecure-resistant behaviours are more typical. Rothbaum concludes that psychologists should produce a set of indigenous theories that are explanations of attachment that are rooted in individual cultures with a small group of universal principles (infant need for protection) but mostly with childcare practices relating to cultural values. Rothbaum was challenged by Posada and Jacobs (2001) which shows that attachment theory does apply to most cultures. Criticisms of Research on Cultural Variations ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Criticisms of cross-cultural research ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Tests  of procedures used may not be equally valid  in the country and may make the culture appear  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœinferior’ or ‘abnormal’. This is an example of  imposed etic. This is when a research method is  used in one culture even thought it was designed to  be used in another (intelligence tests or observations). ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ The group that was tested may not be  representative of the culture and yet researchers  might make generalisations about the whole culture  or even the whole country. Disruption of Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Effects of Separation ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® Spitz and Wolf (1946) observed 100 children in an institution became severely depressed after a few months. Skeels and Dye (1939) found similar children scored lower on intelligence tests. Bifulo et al (1992) found that negative effects of deprivation may occur later in life. When 249 women who had lost their mothers before they were 17 were studied, it was found that they were twice as likely to develop depressive/anxiety disorders later in life. Robertsons (1967-73) made films observing the effects of separation in children: ï  ® ï  ® When given a high level of emotional care and similar structures to that of their home life, the children exhibited some signs of distress, however, slept well and did not reject their PAF when they were reunited. Some were even reluctant to part with the foster mother which is a sign of a good emotional bond. John, however, was in a nursery and not given such attention. He became withdrawn and gave up on proximity seeking bx. When he was reunited with his mother he rejected her for months and demonstrated outbursts of anger towards her. Disruption of Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Physical and Emotional Disruption ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ As the research evidence shows differences in the way physical and emotional attention is given can produce  negative effects in children. However, there are studies  that show these ill effects can be reversed. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Sigvardsson (1979) studied over 600 adopted children in Sweden and at the age of eleven, 26% of them were  classified as ‘problem children’. However in a follow up study, ten years later they were no worse off than the  average population. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ So when alternative emotional care is provided, ill effects of separation can be reversed. However, for some  children disruption of attachment leads to permanent  difficulties. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ To criticise the validity of the research consider that they are based on case studies. Weakness of case studies are  that they are based on generalisations and they depend on  objectivity of the observers and are prone to observer bias. Failure to Form Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Isolated children ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Privation is the lack of having any attachments due to the failure to develop such attachments early in life. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Genie ï  ® ï  ® The Czech twins ï  ® ï  ® Locked in a room by her father until she was 13. When discovered she could not stand erect or speak. She was disinterested in people and never recovered socially. Locked away by their step-mother until the age of 7. Were looked after by their sisters and by 14 had normal social and intellectual capabilities. By 20 they had above average intelligence and excellent social skills. Evaluation ï  ® Was unclear whether or not Genie was retarded at birth or if she ever formed an attachment with her mother. The Czech twins may have formed attachments to each other to compensate for complete lack of care. It is difficult to reach firm conclusions based on only these cases. Failure to Form Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Institutional Care ï  ® ï  ® Multiple studies show that the effects of institutionalisation within children is acute distress. Longitudinal studies have been conducted to see what long term effects are caused by institutionalisation. ï  ® ï  ® Hodges and Tizard (1989) followed a group of 65 British children from early life to adolescence. Children have been place in an institution from before they were 4 months old. Children have not yet formed attachments at this age. An early study found that 70% of the children were not able to care deeply for anyone. The children were assessed regularly up to the age of 16. Some children remained while most were adopted or restored with their original families. The restored children were less likely to develop an attachment with their mothers but the adopted ones were as closely attached to their adopted parents as the control group. However, both groups had problems with peers and showed signs of disinhibited attachment. These findings suggest that early privation had negative effects on the ability to form relationships even when given good subsequent emotional care. If failure to develop attachments after the sensitive period occur it can have an irreversible effect on emotional development. Failure to Form Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Effects of Privation and Institutionalisation ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Attachment disorder ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ This has been recognised as a psychiatric condition and has been included in the DSMIV. There are two kinds of attachment disorder, inhibited and disinhibited. Children with an attachment disorder have no PAF, cant interact or relate to others before the age of 5 and have experienced severe neglect or frequent changes in caregivers. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Poor parenting skills ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Harlow’s monkeys that were raised with surrogate mothers went on to become poor parents. Also, Quinton et al (1984) found similar findings when he compared 50 women who had been raised in institutions. When the women were in their 20’s the ex-institutionalised mothers were experiencing extreme difficulties acting as parents. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Deprivation dwarfism ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Physical evidence by Gardner (1972) that institutionalised children are physically underdeveloped, potentially caused by stress hormones. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Evaluation ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ In the study of Romanian children, one-third recovered well despite not establishing a PAF prior to the sensitive period. Therefore, privation alone cannot explain negative outcomes. This suggests that damage occurs when there are multiple risk factors (Turner and Lloyd, 1995). ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Not sure if the children failed to form attachments early in life. Maybe they did and the problems they experienced later were more related to rejection. Impact of Day Care ï  ® ï  ® Day Care – the form of temporary care not given by the family or someone well known to the child and usually outside of the home. Social development – the aspect of a child’s growth concerned with the development of sociability, where the child learns to relate to others and with the process of socialisation, the child learns social skills appropriate to the society. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Negative effects on social development ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Meta-analysis from findings of 88 studies supports Bowlby’s research that prolonged separation from the PAF leads to maladjustment. Violata and Russell (1994) concluded that regular day care for more than 20 hrs a week had an unmistakable negative effect on socio-emotional development, behaviour and attachment of young children. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ NICHD in USA conducted a longitudinal study of over 1000 children. Parents were interviewed regarding the effects of regular day care. The study showed  that the more time a child spent in day care, regardless of quality, the adults rated them as more disobedient and aggressive (NICHD, 2003). The children in day care were 3 times more likely to demonstrate behavioural problems than children that were cared by their mothers. Melhuish (2004) found evidence that children with high levels of day care in the first two years of development had elevated risks of developing anti-social behaviours. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ The Minnesota longitudinal study demonstrated the more securely attached infants are the more popular with peers they become. So therefore, the more insecure an infant, more peer related problems could be expected. Belsky and Rovine (1988) assessed attachment in children in day care and found that were more likely to be insecurely attached compared to children at home. Impact of Day Care ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Positive effects on social development ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® Good day care provides plenty of social stimulation, whereas, children living at home may lack social interactions. Brown and Harris (1978) found depressed mothers contributed  their low moods to being isolated at home with children. Depressed mothers are likely to form insecure attachments with their children which would have a negative effect on their children. Therefore, the independence gained with having a child in day care is a way to prevent this. Clarke-Stewart et al (1994) studied 150 children and found they were consistently more compliant and independent. The EPPE followed 3000 children in pre-schools and found increased sociability (Sylvia et al, 2003). Day care exposes children to their peers thus enabling them to develop social strategies (negotiate and make friends). Field (1991) found a positive correlation between the amount of time in day care and the number of friends children have once they enter school. Also, those that started day care before 6 months were more sociable than those that started later. Evaluating Research on Day Care ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Weaknesses of research on day care ï  ® When evaluating the research, one must consider the circumstances under which one can find positive or negative outcomes. ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® Prodromidis (1995) found no correlation between Swedish children in day care and aggression. Freidman from NICHD explains the aggression study actually shows that day care children may be more aggressive than non-day care, but still 83% of children in day care between 10 -30 hours a week show no signs of aggression. Second important finding from the NICHD research is that the mothers sensitivity to the child, higher maternal education and income all play a more important role in decreased behavioural problems than the amount of time in day care. Finally, the findings are not causal. The data cannot show that day care caused aggression only that there is a link between the two. Therefore, the data suggests that childrens development is more strongly affected by factors at home than those in day care (Belsky et al, 2007). Evaluating Research on Day Care ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Weaknesses of Research on Day Care ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Cannot apply a cause relating to peer relations as  well, only a link. For example, shy and unsociable children have mothers that are shy and  unsociable, therefore, its possible that more  outgoing parents/children that go to day care. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ A lot of research supports the idea that day care  alone has no direct effect on development and  that there are other factors involved. Gregg et al  (2005) analysed findings from the Children of the  90’s study and concluded that for the majority of  children, maternal employment in their first 3  years of life had no adverse effects on behaviour. Evaluating Research on Day Care ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Mediating Factors ï  ® Quality of Care ï  ® ï  ® Individual Differences ï  ® ï  ® As the quality of care decreases it is expected that the attachment type will become poorer. NICHD study (1997) found that low-quality care was associated with poor social development. As parents have different interests in their child, day care staff are less invested and therefore provide a different kind of attention. This is reflected in Howes and Hamilton (1992) findings  that secure attachments  occurred in only 50% of day care staff but 70% in mothers. The NICHD study found the more secure a child’s attachment level is the better they cope with time spent in day care. However, another study showed that insecure children coped better than secure children (showed more aggressive bx) in day care. Child’s age and number of hours ï  ® ï  ® Gregg et al (2005) found that negative effects were more likely to be found in children starting day care before 18 months of age. However, the magnitude of these effects was small. Clarke-Stewart et al (1994) found no difference in attachment between spending a lot of time in day care (more than 30 hours) with those that spend a little time (less than 10 hours). Implications of Research into Attachment and Day care ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Attachment Research ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Attachment research has shown that when separation occurs, negative effects of this separation can be avoided if substitute emotional care can be provided and links to the PAF are made available. This research has changed the way hospitals handle visiting arrangements and the way institutional care is provided. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ A second implication is the way the adoptions process is managed allowing babies to be adopted earlier strengthening child/parent attachments (Singer, 1985). ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Another implication is the improvement of parenting skills, ie, Circle of Security, which improves infant/mother relationships. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Finally, attachment research has been used to improve day care quality focusing on the importance of secondary attachment figures. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Day Care Research ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ As research shows, high quality care leads to positive outcomes. What is highquality care? ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Low child-staff ratios – 3:1 is ideal for sensitive care to be given ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Minimal staff turnover – allows for consistent care and decreases anxiety ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Sensitive emotional care – only 23% of carers demonstrated highly sensitive care, 50% was moderate care and 20% were emotionally detached. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Qualified staff – qualified managers lead to better social development ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ To ensure high-quality care, legal standards are implemented relating to staff ratio to age of the child, minimum qualifications of staff, Ofsted inspections and finally the sure Start programme.

Theories of Growth and Debt

Theories of Growth and Debt Basically in economic literature we learn two ways in which a country can grow its economy. It can be growth which has been brought about by innovations in the process of competition, which can well be described by the dynamic completion model (Ellig, 2001). On the other hand according to Solow (1956) neoclassical model economic growth can be achieved by an expansion in the amount of investment. According to this model a country will attain economic growth if it increases its savings and investments. This automatically implies that for the least developed countries to grow economically they need to implement policies that support greater savings that will then increase investment and hence growth. To finance its activities a country has a number of options of raising the funds. It can make use of the internal sources such as taxes and fees or it can borrow if the internal source is not enough to finance the budget deficit. According to Adegbite, E et al (2008) the Dual Gap theory is a better explanation of the reason for opting for external finance as opposed to domestic financing in financing the sustainable development. According to the theory in developing countries the level of domestic savings is not sufficient to finance the needed investment to ensure economic development; since investment is a function of savings it is logical to require the use of complementary external goods and services. However, the relationship between domestic savings and foreign funds gives a guide as to how a country can borrow abroad (ibid). Also since most of LDCs are far from their steady state growth any investment injection could lead then to have accelerated economic growth. The country should borrow abroad if it is anticipated that the return on the borrowed funds will be higher than the cost, therefore we do expect a country to invest in projects having expected returns higher than the cost of foreign debt. Since if not used wisely, debt can amount to impeding the long term growth prospect of the country. External debt does not transform automatically into debt burden when a country optimally make use of the fund. According to Adegbite et al (2008) in an optimal condition, the marginal return on investment is greater than or equal to the cost of borrowing, in this case debt will show a positive impact on growth. According to the neoclassical growth theory, debt has a positive direct effect on economic growth. This is because the amount borrowed if used optimally it is anticipated to increase investment. On the other hand the indirect effect of debts is its effect on investment. The transmission mechanism through which the debt affects growth is its reduction on the resources available for investment by debt servicing. According to debt overhang hypothesis, a certain level of external debt has a direct positive effect to economic growth until a certain point where by an additional debt will have a negative effect to growth. The Debt Overhang Theory According to Krugman (1988), the debt overhang theory shows that if there is some likelihood that in the future debt will be larger than the countrys repayment ability; expected debt-service costs will discourage further domestic and foreign investment because the expected rate of return from the productive investment projects will be very low to support the economy as the significant portion of any subsequent economic progress will accrue to the creditor country. This eventually will further reduce both domestic and foreign investments and hence downsizes economic growth (Krugman, 1988, Sachs, 1989a). Claessens and Diwan (1990) argue that debt overhang is a situation in which the illiquidity effect, the disincentive effect, or both effects are strong enough to discourage growth in the absence of concessions by creditors. This is a narrow definition of the debt overhang where the impact of a high external debt that is linked to the tax disincentives argument, where any success in indebted countrys economic performance is taxed away by creditors and ultimately little is left over for domestic investment and subsequent growth (Hjertholm, 2001). According to Were, M (2001) debt overhang is much wider in that the effects of debt do not only affect investment in physical capital but any activity that involves incurring costs up-front for the sake of increased output in the future. Such activities include investment in human capital (in terms of education and health) and in technology acquisition whose effects on growth may be even stronger over time. As stressed out by Agenor and Montiel (1996), the approach to external debt is motivated by several observations. Most of which policy-oriented discussion of the debt problem were centered on the question of whether the debt crisis was one of solvency or of liquidity problem. Differentiating the two terms we can see that, liquidity problem is the inability of a country to service its debts as they fall due. That means lack of liquidity occurs when a county does not have enough cash on hand to pay current obligations. On the other hand, solvency issue relates to whether the value of a countrys liabilities exceeds the ability to pay at any time; a country is insolvent when it is incapable of servicing its debt in the long run (Ajayi, 1991). Taking this into consideration, we observe that, most of least developed countries were solvent and still they are solvent. As pointed out by Kletzer (1988), the present value of the most of least developed countries prospective resources which were measured by discounted value of the real outflows was way far larger than the debt obligations they have. In answering the question as to why the indebted poor countries had a problem of illiquidity, Jonse G. Leta (2002) in his research on external debt and economic growth in Ethiopia pointed out that although the indebted poor countries have been able to pay i.e. solvent, the willingness to pay decline for a variety of reasons. Among many factors there are domestic and external factors that responsible for this outcome of crisis. The domestic factors often cited include wrong macroeconomic policies such as fiscal irresponsibility and exchange rate misalignment, policies that deter savings such as negative real interest rates, which in turn reduce investment and encourage capital flight and financing long-run projects with short-term credits. External factors include oil shocks, deterioration in the terms of trade and rising foreign interest rates. Essentially the higher the stock of debt to the country, the higher is the current sacrifice for the sake of the future growth. The theory of debt overhang is well explained by the hypothesis of Debt Laffer curve which relates the magnitude of countrys debt and the value of repayment. According to Freytag, A et al (2008) the NPV of the debt repayments increases with stock of debt up to a certain threshold point beyond which a higher face value of the debt will be associated with lower efforts and investments, lower economic growth and lower NPV of expected debt service. According to Clements, B et al (2005) high levels of debt can depress economic growth in low-income countries, external debt slows growth only after its face value reaches a threshold level estimated to be about 50 percent of GDP (or, in net present value terms, 20-25 percent of GDP). Debt overhang depresses growth by increasing private investors uncertainty about governmental action taken to meet the debt service obligations. These include increase in money supply that causes inflation, distortion of future tax policies (Clements et al, 2005). Therefore the debt overhang problem is linked to the transfer of resources from capital scarce to capital surplus countries. The debt Laffer curve argument (which was apparently introduced by Jefrrey Sachs) is derived from the tax laffer curve hypothesis introduced by Arthur Laffer (1981), who argues that if personal tax rates were raised, they generate a dreadful impact on government tax revenue. The reason is that high tax rates either simply discourages investment or leads to tax evasion. Figure 1 presents the Debt Laffer Curve of external debt, expected payments and amortizations. If the stock of external debt is small, such that from the origin to point A, then it is expected that the debtor country will be able to meet the forthcoming debt repayment in full without a problem. Under this situation the marginal expected debt repayment with relation to the debt stock is one. However, after this point the expected debt repayment expands at a lower rate in relation to the debt accumulation. A country under this level of debt stock is expected to have some difficulties in meeting the debt repayment; this can be seen from the marginal expected debt repayment of between 0 and 1 exclusive. The risk of inability to service the debt increases with the increase in debt stock. The risk may vary from country to country according to the level of their debts interest rate. At point B, the expected debt repayment reaches its maximum saturated point and then starts falling, at this point and beyond the marginal impact of debt is negative. A country under this situation is totally unable to service the debts and most of the time declared to be in debt crisis. On extending the debt laffer curve to show the contribution of external debt on economic growth on a country we can have figure 2 below. This shows the non linear relationship of external debt and economic growth as supported by Pattillo, C. et al (2002).. A reasonable level of external debt actually has a positive impact on economic growth while excessive debt stock is destructive. As debt stock increases with time growth decreases and it can sometimes reaches a negative level of economic growth. Combining the two figures we have figure 3. Here we can see that as debt increases, creditors expectations of being paid are distorted. From the figure it is easily seen that when the expected payment of the debt increases proportionally less than the debt stock, the distortions are such that extra amounts of debt start decelerating the GDP growth rate. Moreover, if the debt accumulation achieves higher levels such that the debtor starts diminishing or failing to make its regular amortizations, any extra debt increment will be translated into negative contributions to the GDP growth rate. Claessens et al, (1996) stressed out that, the other channels through which the service of a large amount of external debt obligations can affect economic performance include the crowding out effect, the lack of access to international financial markets and the effects of the stock of debt on the general level of uncertainty in the economy. The crowding out effect occurs when there is a reduction in the current debt service that lead to an increase in current investment for any given level of future indebtedness (Cohen, 1993). If a greater portion of export revenue is used to service external debt, very little is available for investment and growth. Claessens et al (1996) also argues that where foreign assistance is related to the debt and debt service of indebted poor countries, the effects of a debt overhang on economic performance is a more complex question. Debt servicing difficulties lead to a deterioration of relations with creditors, thus reducing the amount of finance indebted poor countries can access (Khan and Villaneuva, 1991). Theoretical Consideration of Impact of Debt Relief From the literature on debt overhang and its effects on growth it is evident that debt relief might have a stimulating effect on investment and economic growth. Since debt overhang exist when a country exceeds its repayment ability, it can be suggested that, expected debt service is an increasing function of countrys output level (Krugmanv1988; Sachs 1989). Therefore in presence of debt overhang, the greater percentage of benefits of an increased output brought about the debt accrues to the creditor while all the costs incurred accrue to the indebted country. The incentive mechanism suggests that, in the presence of debt overhang high debt reduces both public and private investment. In the case of public investment, the incentive to investment is discouraged when a large percentage of the return on the debt accrues to the creditor (Johansson 2010). According to Helpman (1989) the disincentive to private investment occur when a high future debt service acts as implicit tax because more will have to be raised out of the tax to help finance the debt obligations. In this situation projects with quick return will be preferred to long term because there will be high uncertainty on government actions and its policies in meeting the debt obligations (Servà ¨n 1997). High level debt increase governments disincentive to carry out reforms. As supported by Corden (1998) and Johansson (2010) that high level of debt makes economic reforms less advantageous and slows down growth because in the presence of debt overhang the growth-enhancing reforms intensify the pressure to repay foreign creditors than fuelling the growth and improving social services. Therefore when a country suffers from debt overhang, debt relief has the potential to improve economic efficiency. This can be possible by reducing the debt stock; the reduction will then spill-over its effects and reduce the debt overhang. This will then prevent the disincentive suggested. Cohen (1993) suggested that, debt service payments crowd out investments in areas such as education, health and infrastructure development which are direct as well as indirect impact on economic growth. To help in facilitating growth debt relief frees resources which were tied up in debt servicing enabling government to reallocate the freed resources to more productive areas. Looking into resource mechanism in detail it is evident that not just debt relief might bring about the growth due to the freed resources but other factors such as the magnitude of the relief or forgiveness, government investment decisions of the freed resources, revenue collection, new borrowing, and aids have impact on growth. As supported by Cassimon et al (2008) that since the creditors give debt relief to countries facing repayment difficulties, the resource mechanism might not create a greater fiscal space to help investment. The impact of debt relief or forgiveness on growth might be limited due to moral hazard or adverse selection (Johansson, 2010). This is because with the idea that the debt will be forgiven or relieved in future, borrowers will be encourage to take up excessive amounts of new loans, expecting that it will be forgiven when the country is in repayment difficulties (Easterly, 2002). This will push countries to rise up new loans even if there are no productive investment opportunities. In adverse selection case, creditors give relief to countries which face payment difficulties and not the ones that are willing and able to increase their investment. A country in this situation might be faced by factors such as profligate government, political instability or interest group polarization reflecting the high discounting toward the future (Easterly, 2002). He pointed out further, for the debt relief to have a positive impact on growth, good institution and governance is inevitable. This was also supported by Robinson, (2001) and Subramanian, Trebbi, (2004) because countries with better institutions and government invest more in physical and human capital and make efficient use of the resources to achieve higher growth. In absence of good institutions and governance the freed resources would not translate to productive investments. Empirical Literature Review Debt overhang, investment and Growth Milton Iyoha (1999) used macroeconometric model to facilitate the simulation of the impact of external debt in economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa. With the use of simultaneous equation models for output and investment demand he was able to conclude that, there is a significant debt overhang and crowding out effect in Sub-Saharan Africa. In other words, the large stock of external debt and heavy debt service payments had a depressing effect on investment in SSA. He went further in simulating the implications of the debt reduction packages on economic growth. Upon simulating at different debt stock reduction levels he found that the hypothesized debt reductions assumed would increase investment and to a lesser extent the GDP on subsequent period. Simulations showed that a 50% debt stock reduction would have raised per capita gross domestic investment by over 40%, and increased GDP growth by over 3%, on average, during the 1987-1994 period. Chowdhury (1994) used a structural simultaneous equation model built to capture the interrelationship between public and private external debt, capital accumulation and production function. The models were constructed basing on the inter-relationship between the variables that is, some of the variables have characteristic of both independent and dependent nature. Using the Granger causality test on the data set for indebted developing countries in Asia and Pacific, Chowdhury showed that, the Bulow-Rogoff (1990) proposition that the external debt of the developing countries is a symptom rather than a cause of economic slowdown is rejected. Also he further found that, the Dornbusch-Krugman proposition that external debt leads to economic slowdown is rejected. But a feedback-type relationship is not rejected for two countries. The estimated results indicate that the overall effects of the public and private external debts on GNP are small and of an opposite sign, where as an increase in the GNP level raises substantially the public and private external debts. He argued that the positive estimates of the indirect effects of the public external debt on GNP obtained indicate that the capital flight generated by tax rise expectations is smaller than the contribution of public borrowing in financing investment in capital stock. Moreover, the direct and hence the full effects of the public external debt on GNP are positive and substantially large. An increase of 1% in the public external debt is likely to directly and indirectly raise the GNP level by 0.240% in the Asia Pacific countries. However, the adverse indirect effects of the external debt on GNP through lowering private investment and the overall level of capital stock are large in absolute value and substantially exceed the direct effect. Thus, the full effects of the private external debt on GNP are negative; a 1% increase in the private external debt is likely to reduce the GNP level by 0.033% during the time of study. In his estimates also, the effect of GNP on capital stock is indirectly amplified by the positive effect of the public external debt on capital stock. The overall effect of GNP on capital accumulation is positive. The marginal product of capital is also positive and there is diminishing marginal productivity of capital. Since aggregating of data across countries imposes and identical structure on all country although sometimes there are greater differences between the studied countries. Therefore it is necessary to consider the case of each developing country separately so as to study the characters deeply and suggest policies specific for that country. It is under this consideration that the study will be conducted specifically to Tanzania to explore specific characters of the relationship between external debt and economic growth and thereafter answer the key question on debt relief and its impact on growth in Tanzania. Odegbite, E et al (2008) used two models to capture both linear and nonlinear relationship of external debt in economic growth in the study on the impact of Nigerias external debt on economic development. Based on the modification of Elibadawi, Ndulu and Ndungu (1997) model Odegbite investigated the impact of large external debt stock with its servicing requirements and resulting fiscal deficit on private investment. Analysis showed that the influence of export growth on GDP growth was confirmed with a significant statistics. This has supported what Edwards (1998) claimed on the positive role of export growth process by increasing factor productivity in Nigeria. Due to the existence of debt overhang and crowding out effect result shows that savings compresses output. It was evidenced that, a unit increase in debt burden as measured by the debt service to GDP ratio generates 185 units growth. However the shortcoming of the model used is it considers the public sector gap only and igno res the BOP, it also takes government expenditures and revenue, interest rate and exchange rate as given. Barfour, O (1995), in his study on Ghana, argued that debt repayment inevitably imposes constraints on a debtor countrys growth prospective since it involves the transfer of resources to other countries. Therefore, in order to adequately appreciate the problem of indebtedness, it  is essential to relate the debt with its repayments of some income resources generated by the debtor out of which the repayments could be made. Elbadawi et al. (1997) also confirmed a debt overhang effect on economic growth using cross-section regression for 99 developing countries covering SSA, Latin America, Asia and Middle East. Three direct channels in which indebtedness in SSA works against growth was identified, this include the current debt inflows as a ratio of GDP (which stimulate growth), past debt accumulation (capturing debt overhang) and debt service ratio. The indirect channel works through the impacts it has on the other channels on public sector expenditures. Empirical study shows that direct nonlinear effects of debt on growth was presented in a fixed and random effects panel estimates of a growth regression in which debt to GDP enters both in linear and quadratic form. The results imply growth maximizing debt to GDP ratio of 97 percent, which is quite high considering the average debt to GDP ratio of 70 percent Pattillo, C (2002) By linking debt and growth problem to capital flight in a relatively simple model, Calvo (1998) urged that, high debt is associated with low growth since a higher distortionary tax burden on capital is required to service the debt, leading to a lower rate of return on capital, lower investment and growth. Low debt regimes have high growth for the opposite reasons. In intermediate ranges of debt, however, the effect on growth is indeterminate. The mechanism behind the possibility of multiple equilibria is a reverse causation from growth to the tax burden: if the economy grows more slowly, then the tax rate necessary to obtain enough resources to repay a given debt will have to be higher and vice versa Pattillo, C (2002). Taking in to account the direct as well as the feedback effect of debt in his analysis of the impact of foreign debt on growth in Tanzania Mjema (1996) used simultaneous equation models. In his results he proposed that the impact of the debt service ratio on real growth in GDP is negative. However the effect of external debt found to be positive as it facilitates the growth although the negative force is greater and therefore outweigh the positive effect of debt. Amoating and Amoaku-Adu (1996) urged if a greater proportion of export revenue were used to service external debt, then little foreign exchange would be available for investment and growth. This shows an inverse relationship between debt servicing and investment and growth (Gedefa, J. 2002) A number of other studies have found the existence of debt overhang and crowing out effect in SSA when studying the relationship between debt vis a vis economic growth, investment, capital flight just to mention a few. However, most of the studies are mainly based on data across countries in disregard to each countrys uniqueness. While the findings are quite revealing, there is need for case-by-case in depth studies in view of each countrys unique characteristics. Debt Relief On reviewing a two decades of debt relief Easterly, W (2002) conducted a study aiming at answering the key question as to why did HIPCs became very indebted. Using a sample of 41 HIPCs as classified by IMF and World Bank, he found that despite their poor policies, HIPCs received more than other LDCs. He found that between 1989 1997 a total of US$ 33 billion were forgiven while their respective borrowing was US$41 billion, this shows a close association that the debt relief will be met with an equivalent amount of new borrowing. Upon running the regression for the 40 HIPCs with complete data he found a statistically significant association between average debt relief as a percentage of GDP and new net borrowing as percentage of GDP, one percentage point of GDP higher debt forgiveness translated into 0.34% of GDP new net borrowing. Going further in his analysis Easterly showed that, the average levels of current account deficits, budget deficits, real valuation and other policy indicators were worse for most HIPCs. HIPCs also were worse on the broad measure of policy which includes not only a rating of policy stance but also the institutional quality like the prevalence of corruption. One of explanation of the HIPCs heavily indebtedness is they suffered adverse terms of trade shocks, and wars which destroy countries productive assets. The findings imply that the substantial reduction in external debt projected for the countries participating in the HIPC Initiative would directly add 0.8-1.1 percent to their per capita GDP growth rates. Indeed, the positive effects of debt relief may already be reflected in some of the healthier growth rates achieved by these countries in the past few years relative to their poor performance in the 1990s. (Annual GDP growth averaged 1.2 percent in 2000-02, compared with 0.2 percent during the 1990s.) Clements, B et al (2005). BIBLIOGRAPHY Amoating, K. and Amoaku-Adu, B. (1996), Economic Growth, Export and External Debt causality: The Case of African Countries, Applied Economics, 28, pp 21-27 Barfour. O. (1995), Ghana: The Burden of Debt Service Payment Under Structural Adjustment, African Economic Research Consortium Research Papers, No 8, English press Limited, Kenya. Bulow, J. and Rogoff, K. (1990), Cleaning up Third World Debt Without Getting Taken to the Cleaners, The Journal of Economic Perspective, 4(1), 31-42 Chowdhury Khorshed (1994), A Structural Analysis of External Debt and Economic Growth: Some Evidence of From Selected Countries in Asia and Pacific, Applied Economic, 26 (12). Claessens, S. and Diwan, I. (1990), Investment incentives: New Money, Debt Relief, and the Critical Role of Conditionality in Debt Crisis, The World Bank Economic Review, 4(1). Iyoha, M. A. (1999), External Debt and Economic Growth in Sub-Saharan African countries: An Econometric study, African Economic Research Consortium Research Papers No 90, English press Limited, Kenya Mjema, G. D. (1996), The Impact of Foreign Debt Servicing in the Economy of Tanzania: A Simultaneous equation approach, African Journal of Economic Policy, 3(1).